The rules on this page show the relationship
between spelling and pronunciation in Tundrian. For pronunciation, we shall use
the phonetic symbols explained on the Phonetics and phonology page.
Pronunciation rules are given in alphabetic order, by simple letter and
digraph.
At the bottom of the page,
there are examples of Tundrian
homophones with
contrasting spellings.
a b c
d e
f g h i
j k l
m n o p
q r s t
u v w x
y z
- a
- In open syllables: /a/. Ex: casa
/'kaza/ (house).
- In closed syllables: /ɑ/. Ex: camp /'kɑmp/
(field).
- In the function words las and celas, <a> is pronounced /ɑ/ when the immediately following word
begins with a voiceless consonant, and /a/ otherwise. Ex: las compro /lɑs 'kɔmpru/ (I buy them [fem.]) BUT las vidzo /laz 'vidzu/ (I see them);
vidzo celas casas /'vidzu tʃəlɑs 'kazas/ (I see these houses) BUT hoy comprat celas uvas /oĭ kɔm'prat tʃəlaz 'yvas/ (I have bought these grapes).
- Exceptionally, we find /a/ in closed unstressed syllables in adverbs
like naturalment /natyral'mɛnt/
(naturally), similarment /similar'mɛnt/
'similarly'.
- Exceptionally, <a> is silent is
aorta /'ɔrta/ (aorta).
- In some English loanwords we find /eĭ/: Basic
/'beĭzik/, baby
/'beĭbi/.
- á
- Always /a/. Ex: será /sə'ra/
(he/she/it will be); ánat /'anat/ (duck).
- â
- Always /ɑ/. Ex: plâstic /'plɑstik/
(plastic); ân /'ɑn/
(year).
- aa
- Used only in proper names: /a/. Ex: Caasti
/'kasti/; Isaac /i'zak/.
- ae
- Before <r>: /ɛ/. Ex: aeroport
/ɛru'pɔrt/ (airport); laerma
/'lɛrma/ (tear [n.]).
- Separate syllabic vowels otherwise. Ex: traent
/tra'ɛnt/ (pulling); Israel
/izra'el/ (Israel).
- ai, ái, ay
- Normally /aĭ/. Ex: lait /'laĭt/
(milk);
cantái /kɑn'taĭ/
(I sang);
payna /'paĭna/
(page); papegay /papə'gaĭ/
(parrot).
- Before the phonemes /tʃ/ and /ʃ/: /a/. Ex: caixa
/'kaʃa/ (box).
- Exceptionally we find this spelling in payeiz
/pa'is/ (country).
- In some English loanwords we find /eĭ/: Mayday
/'meĭdeĭ/, back-pay
/'bɑk 'peĭ/.
- au, áu
- Normally /ɔ/. Ex: aur /'ɔr/
(gold); laudar /lɔ'dar/
(to praise); cáustic /'kɔstik/.
- /o/ in the word pauvro
/'povru/ (poor) and in the preterite 1st person
pl. ending -aum. Ex: cantaum /kɑn'tom/
(we sang).
- âu
- Always /aŭ/. Ex: clâu
/'klaŭ/ (key).
a b c
d e
f g h i
j k l
m n o p
q r s t
u v w x
y z
- b, bb
- Normally /b/. Ex: batteir
/bɑ'tir/ (to beat); sâbbat
/'sɑbat/ (Saturday).
- /p/, before <s>, <t>. Ex: absolut
/ɑpsu'lyt/ (absolute); obturar
/ɔpty'rar/ (to fill, to shut).
a b c
d e
f g h i
j k l
m n o p
q r s t
u v w x
y z
- c, cc
- /k/, before the back vowels <a>, <o> or <u>, also
before consonants and in final position. Ex: casa
/'kaza/ (house); accordar
/ɑkɔr'dar/ (to grant); secur
/sə'kyr/ (safe); octoubre
/ɔk'tubrə/ (October); lac
/'lak/ (lake).
- /tʃ/ before the front vowels <e>, <i> or <y>. Ex:
cent /'tʃɛnt/
(hundred); occideir /ɔtʃi'dir/
(to kill); cypress /tʃip'rɛs/
(cypress).
- ç, cç
- Always /tʃ/ (used only before the back vowels <a>,
<o> or <u>, or in final position). Ex: fâça
/'fɑtʃa/ (face); calçoun
/kɑl'tʃun/ (shoe); çutat
/tʃy'tat/ (city); bacçar
/bɑ'tʃar/ (to stagger); vouç /'vutʃ/ (voice).
- ch, cch
- Always /k/ in common words. Ex: chemia
/'kemja/ (chemistry); choral
/ku'ral/ (choir); sacchariyna
/sɑka'røĭna/ (saccharine).
- /ʃ/ in some proper names taken from French and Nordisc. Ex:
Chûgna /'ʃuɲa/;
Chartres /'ʃɑrtrə/.
a b c
d e
f g h i
j k l
m n o p
q r s t
u v w x
y z
- d, dd
- Usually /d/. Ex: depois /də'poĭs/
(afterwards); additzoun /ɑdi'tsun/
(addition).
- Silent between a consonant and the adverbial ending
-ment. Ex:
grandment /grɑm'mɛnt/ (largely); virdment
/vir'mɛnt/ (in a green fashion).
- dj
- Always /dʒ/. Ex: adjectiyv
/adʒɛk'tøĭf/ (adjective); trudjar
/try'dʒar/ (to push).
- ds
- Always /ts/ (occurs only in final position, when the
ending <s> is added on to word-final <d>). Ex: cads
/'kats/ (you fall); cruds
/'kryts/ (crude [masc.acc.pl.]).
- dz
- Always /dz/. Ex: dzent
/'dzɛnt/ (tooth); medz
/'medz/ (middle).
a b c
d e
f g h i
j k l
m n o p
q r s t
u v w x
y z
- e
- In open stressed syllables: /e/. Ex: ped
/'ped/ (foot); velha
/'veʎa/ (old [f.]).
- In open unstressed syllables, except in final
position after a <g>, or before another vowel: /ə/. Ex: tzeneir
/tsə'nir/ (to hold); case
/'kazə/ (houses); de
/də/ (of).
- In closed syllables (stressed or unstressed): /ɛ/.
Ex: perdo /'pɛrdu/
(I lose); perdeim /pɛr'dim/
(we lose). Also, before or after another vowel
or semi-vowel if unstressed
(except finally), e.g.: theatro
/tɛ'ɑtru/ (theatre); le isle
/lɛ'izlə/ (the islands);
pietat /pjɛ'tat/
(piousness). In final
position, /ə/ is retained: pharmacíe /fɑrma'tʃiə/.
- Silent in word-final postion after <g>. Ex: college
/kɔ'ledʒ/ (college); bridge /'bridʒ/ (bridge [the
game]).
- é
- Practically always /e/. Ex: crédit
/'kredit/ (credit); café
/ka'fe/ (coffee).
- Exceptionally, the words bén
(well [adv.]) and és
(is) are pronounced /bɛn/ and /ɛs/,
respectively, when they are unstressed
in the sentence.
- ê
- Always /ɛ/. Ex: tirêt
/ti'rɛt/ (drawer); êlephant
/ɛlə'fɑnt/ (elephant); ê
/ɛ/ (and).
- ë
- In word-final position it is pronounced /ə/. Ex: imagë
/i'madʒə/ (picture); boë
/'boə/ (boa constrictors).
- In the few cases where it is used within a word, it
is pronounced /ɛ/. Ex: joëntut /ʒuɛn'tyt/
(youth).
- ea
- In a few words of English origin: /i/ or /eĭ/. Ex: team
/'tim/; steak /'steĭk/.
- Otherwise, the vowels belong to different syllables, as in: theatro
/tɛ'ɑtru/ (theatre); crear
/krɛ'ar/ (to create); realitat
/rɛali'tat/ (reality).
- ee
- This rare combination is pronounced /e/ when stressed
and /ɛ/ when unstressed. Ex: leer /'ler/
(to read [a legal term]); leerá /lɛ'ra/
(he will read).
- In words of English origin, the combination is
pronounced /i/, as in: meeting /'miting/;
yankee /'jɑnki/.
- eë
- This rare combination is pronounced /eə/. Ex: europeë
/øru'peə/ (Europeans [fem.pl]).
- ei, éi
- This frequent combination is always pronounced /i/.
Ex: seira /'sira/
(evening); veinde /'vində/
(he sells); féicat /'fikat/
(liver); corteisament /kɔrtiza'mɛnt/
(courteously).
- êi, ey
- Except before the consonants /tʃ/ and /ʃ/, both
these combinations are pronounced /eĭ/. Ex: pêit
/'peĭt/ (chest); rey
/'reĭ/ (king); peyne
/'peĭnə/ (comb).
- Before the consonants /tʃ/ and /ʃ/, the
pronunciation of <êi> is /e/ (<ey> does not occur in this position). Ex: pêix
/'peʃ/ (fish); êixiyr
/e'ʃøĭr/ (to go out).
- eu, éu
- Always /ø/. Ex: seut /søt/
(seven); eular /ø'lar/
(to go); séutim /'søtim/
(seventh).
- êu
- Always /eŭ/. Ex: dzêu
/'dzeŭ/ (god); nêus
/'neŭs/ (birthmarks [acc.pl.]); aerêu
/ɛ'reŭ/ (aerial).
a b c
d e
f g h i
j k l
m n o p
q r s t
u v w x
y z
- f, ff
- Always /f/. Ex: fariyna
/fa'røĭna/ (flour); effêit
/ê'feĭt/ (effect).
a b c
d e
f g h i
j k l
m n o p
q r s t
u v w x
y z
- g,gg
- /g/, before the back vowels <a>, <o> or <u>,
also before consonants (except <s>) and in
final position. Ex: nêgatiyv /nɛga'tøĭf/ (negative); agonizar
/aguni'zar/ (to agonize);
gûla /'gula/ (throat); aglomeratzoun
/agluməra'tsun/ (agglomeration); fag
/'fag/ (beech tree).
- /k/ before <s> (occurs only in final
position, with the ending <s> added on to word-final <g>). Ex: fags
/'faks/ (beech-trees [acc.pl.]); geologs
/dʒɛu'loks/ (geologists [acc.pl.]).
- /dʒ/ before the front vowels <e>, <i> or <y>.
Ex: gent /'dʒɛnt/
(people); legîa /lə'dʒia/
(I/he/she was reading); sûggereir /sudʒə'rir/
(to suggest); gynecología
/dʒinəkulu'dʒia/
(gynecology).
- Silent in intervocalic position after an <i> in a few geographical names in Tundria, in particular in Taigo /'taĭu/.
- ge
- Considered as a unit at the end of a word, it is pronounced
/dʒ/. Ex: college /kɔ'ledʒ/
(college); garage /ga'radʒ/
(garage).
- In all other cases, this combination corresponds to a
consonant + vowel sequence. Ex: gestatzoun /dʒɛsta'tsun/
(gestation); geología /dʒɛulu'dʒia/
(geology).
- gh
- Used in a few proper nouns and in words of foreign
(mostly Italian) origin, this combination is always pronounced /g/. Ex:
ghetto /'gɛtu/;
spaghetti /spa'gɛti/;
Ghoyla /'gula/.
- gi
- Considered as a unit when immediately followed in the
same word by a back vowel (<a>, <o> or <u>), this
combination is pronounced /dʒ/. Ex: plagia /'pladʒa/
(beach); collegios /kɔ'ledʒus/
(colleges [acc.pl.]); figiut
/fi'dʒyt/ (fixed [pp]); giûba
/'dʒuba/ (skirt).
- In all other cases, this combination corresponds to a
sequence of two separate phonemes. Ex: girar /dʒi'rar/
(to rotate); ênergie /ɛ'nɛrdʒjə/
(energies); magi /'madʒi/
(magicians).
- gn
- In non-initial position, this sequence is almost
always pronounced /ɲ/. Ex: agnêil /a'ɲeĭl/
(lamb); signal /si'ɲal/
(signal); magnífic /ma'ɲific/
(magnificient).
- In initial position, in all forms of the verb cognosceir (and
its derivatives), and in some proper names, <gn> is pronounced /n/ (i.e. the
<g> is silent). Ex: gnôstic /'nɔstik/
(gnostic); gnû /'nu/
(gnu); cognousco /ku'nusku/
(I know); cognoscentza /kunɔ'ʃɛntsa/
(knowledge); Cugna /'kyna/
(city in southern Tundria).
- In some words of recent learned origin (mostly from
Greek and Latin), non-initial <gn> is pronounced as the sequence /gn/. Ex: agnôstic
/ag'nɔstik/ (agnostic); ignifug
/igni'fyg/ (fireproof).
- gu
- Considered as a unit when immediately followed within
the same word by a front vowel (<e>, <i> or <y>),
this combination is pronounced /g/. Ex: guerra
/'gɛra/ (war); guiyda
/'gøĭda/ (guide).
- In all other cases, this combination corresponds to a
sequence of two separate phonemes. Ex: lingua
/'lingwa/ (tongue, language); longura
/lɔn'gyra/ (length).
a b c
d e
f g h i
j k l
m n o p
q r s t
u v w x
y z
- h
- This letter is always silent. Ex:
haveir /a'vir/ (to have);
hyena /'jena/ (hyena);
alcohol
/ɑlku'ol/ (alcohol); Niniveh /nini've/.
- After consonantal letters, <h> normally has no value.
Note, however, that <lh>, <nh> and <ph> are /ʎ/, /ɲ/ and /f/,
respectively, and <ch> is /k/ even in front of a front vowel. Ex:
olh
/'oʎ/
(eye); nhive /'ɲivə/
(snow); philosophía
/filuzu'fia/;
chemia /'kemja/
(chemistry).
a b c
d e
f g h i
j k l
m n o p
q r s t
u v w x
y z
- i
- Generally speaking, this letter is pronounced /i/.
Ex: fid /'fid/
(faith); pira /'pira/
(pear); muri /'myri/
(walls); mi /mi/
(to me).
- Before vowels, the pronunciation of unstressed <i>
varies between syllabic /i/ and non-syllabic /j/, depending on the phonetic
context and the rhythm of speech. Ex: deviam
/də'vjam/ ~ /dəviam/
(we had to); Francia /'frɑntʃja/
~ /'frɑntʃia/
(France); convênient /kɔmvɛ'njɛnt/
~ /kɔmvɛni'ɛnt/ (suitable).
- When <i> is between a <g> and a following
back
vowel, it is silent. See here for more.
- í, î
- Both of these accented letters are used for stressed
/i/ in certain situations. The exact rules are given
here. Ex: xerví
/ʃɛr'vi/ (he served);
alfín /ɑl'fin/
(bishop
[in chess]);
havîan /a'vian/
(they had); mîa /'mia/
(my, mine [fem.sing.]).
- ï
- This letter is never used for a stressed vowel. Its
most common value is syllabic /i/, used after a vowel (in the absence of the
trema, a monophthong or diphthong would be pronounced). Ex: naïvitat
/naivi'tat/ (naiveté); reïncarnar-se
/reinkɑr'nasə/ (to be reincarnated); coïncidentza
/kuintʃi'dɛntsa/ (coincidence);
suïcidar-se /syitʃi'dasə/
(to commit suicide).
- A second use of this letter is to show that <i> is to
be pronounced /i/ or /j/ between <g> and a back vowel (rather than be
silent, as explained here). Ex:
ênergïa
/ɛ'nɛrdʒja/ (energy); contagïoun
/kɔnta'dʒjun/ (contagion).
- ie
- After <c> and <g>, when in an open syllable, this
digraph is pronounced /e/. Ex: ciec /'tʃek/
(blind); giela /'dʒela/
(it freezes). In the rare cases where this situation occurs in an unstressed
syllable, the pronunciation becomes /ɛ/. Ex: ciecament
/tʃɛka'mɛnt/ (blindly).
- In all other cases <ie> is considered to be a
sequence of two phonemes. Ex: scientza /'ʃjɛntsa/
(science) [closed syllable!]; pietat /pjɛ'tat/
(piousness); hierba /'jɛrba/
(grass); convênient /kɔmvɛ'njɛnt/
~ /kɔmvɛni'ɛnt/
(suitable).
- îu
- This combination is pronounced /iŭ/. Ex: rîu
/'riŭ/
(river); vîu
/'viŭ/ (alive).
- iy, íy
- This combination is almost always pronounced /øĭ/. Ex: viyta
/'vøĭta/ (life); xerviy
/ʃɛr'vøĭ/ (I served).
- Exceptionally, the pronunciation of this digraph is
/ø/ when followed by a palatal consonant (/tʃ/ or /ʃ/). Ex: amiyci
/a'møtʃi/ (friends); diyxi
/'døʃi/ (I said).
a b c
d e
f g h i
j k l
m n o p
q r s t
u v w x
y z
- j
- This consonant is always pronounced /ʒ/. Ex:
jôun /'ʒoŭn/
(young); bajar /ba'ʒar/
(to kiss).
- k
- Occurring only in recent loanwords, this letter is
always pronounced /k/. Ex: kilogramma /kilu'grɑma/;
kantismo /kɑn'tizmu/.
a b c
d e
f g h i
j k l
m n o p
q r s t
u v w x
y z
- l, ll
- /l/ is the normal pronunciation. Ex:
lait /'laĭt/
(milk); voleir /vu'lir/
(to want); xella /'ʃɛla/
(chair); mil /'mil/
(thousand).
- When the combination <ll> is derived from the Latin
prefix in- + a root beginning with <l>, it is pronounced doubled
(/ll/). Ex: illógic /il'lodʒik/
(illogical); illuminar /illymi'nar/
(to light up, illuminate).
- The letter <l> is silent between the glide /j/ and
the phoneme /s/. Ex: cayls /'kaĭs/
(puppies [acc.pl.]); fiyls /'føĭs/
(threads [acc.pl.]).
- lh
- This digraph is normally pronounced /ʎ/. Ex:
lhevar /ʎə'var/
(to lift); palha /'paʎa/
(straw); filh /'fiʎ/
(son).
- Exceptionally, <lh> is pronounced /l/ in the Spanish
proper name Alhambra /a'lɑmbra/
and the Greek loanword philharmónic /filɑr'monik/
(philharmonic) and its derivatives.
a b c
d e
f g h i
j k l
m n o p
q r s t
u v w x
y z
- m, mm
- Normally pronounced /m/. Ex: man
/'man/ (hand); amar
/a'mar/ (to love); flamma
/'flɑma/ (flame); tzemp
/'tsɛmp/ (time); sûm
/'sum/ (we are). The labiodental nasal seen
before <ph> is also considered to be an allophone of the phoneme /m/. Ex: amphitheatru
/ɑmfitɛ'ɑtru/ (amphitheatre); symphonía
/simfu'nia/ (symphony).
- When the combination <mm> is derived from the Latin
prefix in- + a root beginning with <m>, it is pronounced doubled
/mm/. Ex: immigrar /immi'grar/
(to immigrate); immóbil /im'mobil/
(immobile).
- When <m> occurs before <l> or <r>, the result is a
nasalization of the preceding vowel. Phonemically, this is represented by
post-vocalic /n/. Ex: ximlar /ʃin'lar/
(to seem); camra /'kanra/
(room, chamber).
- mn
- This combination is pronounced /n/. Ex:
mnêmónic /nɛ'monik/
(mnemonic); homne /'onə/
(man); alûmn /a'lun/
(pupil).
a b c
d e
f g h i
j k l
m n o p
q r s t
u v w x
y z
- n, nn
- Normally pronounced /n/. Ex: noit
/'noĭt/ (night); poneir
/pu'nir/ (to put down); canna
/'kɑna/ (rod, cane); cantar
/kɑn'tar/ (to sing); can
/'kan/ (dog). This is also the phonemic
interpretation of the nasal vowel preceding l or r in words like
anlo /'anlu/
(ring), quenro /'kenru/
(crab).
- When the combination <nn> is derived from the Latin
prefix in- + a root beginning with <n>, it is pronounced doubled
/nn/. Ex: innocent /innu'tʃɛnt/
(innocent); innovar /innu'var/
(to innovate).
- The labiodental nasal appearing before <f> and <v> is
spelt <n>, but is considered to be an allophone of the phoneme /m/. Ex: enfant
/ɛm'fɑnt/ (child); invitar
/imvi'tar/ (to invite). Note that before <ph>
the spelling of this nasal is <m>.
- In the sequences <-ndm-> and <-ntm->, seen in adverbs
like grandment /grɑm'mɛnt/
(largely) and abûndantment /abundɑm'mɛnt/
(abundantly), <n> is pronounced /m/.
- Word-final <n> becomes /m/ when immediately followed
by a word beginning with a labial or labiodental consonant. Ex: en
Pariys /ɛm pa'røĭs/ (in Paris); un
viatx /ym 'vjatʃ/ (a trip).
- nh
- Generally, this is pronounced /ɲ/. Ex:
nhive /'ɲivə/
(snow); âranha /ɑ'raɲa/
(spider); sonh /'soɲ/
(dream).
- Exceptionally, when the prefixes an- or in-
precede roots beginning with <h>, the combination <nh> is pronounced <n>.
Ex: anhydrat /ani'drat/
(anhydrate); inhumán /iny'man/
(inhuman).
- nm
- This combination is generally pronounced /m/. Ex: anma
/'ama/ (soul).
- When the <m> is part of the adverbial ending -ment, the
combination becomes /mm/. Ex: comunment /kumym'mɛnt/
(commonly).
a b c
d e
f g h i
j k l
m n o p
q r s t
u v w x
y z
- o
- In open stressed syllables: /o/. Ex: foc
/'fok/ (fire); folha
/'foʎa/ (leaf).
- In open unstressed syllables: /u/. Ex: voleir
/vu'lir/ (to want); canto
/'kɑntu/ (I sing); roar
/ru'ar/ (to implore); non
/nun/ (not); lo /lu/
(him, it, the [masc.acc.sing]). Also in son /sun/
or /'sun/ (they are), which may or may not be
stressed.
- In closed syllables (stressed or unstressed): /ɔ/.
Ex: conto /'kɔntu/
(I count); contam /kɔn'tam/
(we count).
- ó
- Always /o/. Ex: cór /'kor/
(heart); avión /a'vjon/
(airplane); cantó /kɑn'to/
(she sang).
- ô
- Always /ɔ/. Ex: prôxim
/'prɔsim/ (next); chlôr
/'klɔr/ (chlorine); côtounha
/kɔ'tuɲa/ (quince).
- oa
- In recent loanwords from English: /o/ (stressed), /ɔ/
(unstressed). Ex: coach /'kotʃ/;
goal /'gol/, toast
/'tost/, toastar /tɔs'tar/
(to toast).
- Otherwise, the vowels belong to different syllables, as
in: roar /ru'ar/ (to
implore); roa /'roa/
(he implores); inchoatiyv /inkua'tøĭf/
(inchoative); oasis /u'azis/
(oasis).
- oe
- This relatively rare digraph is pronounced /ø/. Ex: coeva
/'køva/ (owl); oesophag
/øzu'fag/ (esophagus).
- oi, oy
- Except before the consonants /tʃ/ and /ʃ/, these
combinations are pronounced /oĭ/ when stressed. Ex: noit
/'noĭt/ (night); soy
/'soĭ/ (I am).
- Before the consonants /tʃ/ and /ʃ/, the combination
<oi> (there are no examples of <oy>) is pronounced /o/ when stressed. Ex: coiça
/'kotʃa/ (shell, pod); coixa
/'koʃa/ (thigh).
- Except before the consonants /tʃ/ and /ʃ/, the
pronunciation is /uĭ/ when unstressed. Ex: noi /nuĭ/
(to us); coifura /kuĭ'fyra/
(hairdo); royal /ruĭ'al/
(royal).
- Before the consonant /ʃ/, the pronunciation of <oi> is
/u/ when unstressed. Ex: coixiyn /ku'ʃøĭn/
(cushion).
- In some geographical and family names, the
combination <oy> is pronounced /u/. Ex: Ghoyla
/'gula/; Maroyni
/ma'runi/.
- ôi
- This rare combination is pronounced /oĭ/. It occurs in
unstressed syllables only. Ex: ôitanta /oĭ'tɑnta/
(eighty).
- oo
- In some rare proper nouns, this is pronounced /o/.
Ex: Soolh /'soʎ/;
Nooç /'notʃ/.
- In words of English origin, the combination is read
as /u/. Ex: football /fud'bɑl/;
poodle /'pudəl/.
- Otherwise the combination is considered to be a
sequence of two phonemes. Ex: zoología /zuulu'dʒia/
(zoology); coordinar /kuɔrdi'nar/
(to coordinate).
- ou, óu
- This frequent combination is always pronounced /u/. Ex:
houra /'ura/ (hour);
cognousco /ku'nusku/
(I know); cangaróu /kɑnga'ru/
(kangaroo); jalousament /ʒaluza'mɛnt/
(jealously).
- ôu
- Always /oŭ/. Ex: nôu /'noŭ/
(nine; new); jôudzi /'ʒoŭdzi/
(Thursday).
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- p, pp
- Normally /p/. Ex: paire
/'paĭrə/ (father); capeir
/ka'pir/ (to catch); septembre
/sɛp'tɛmbrə/ (September); sûppa
/'supa/ (soup); cap
/'kap/ (chief).
- Silent initially before <n>, <s> and <t>. Ex:
pneumonía /nømu'nia/ (pneumonia);
psychología /sikulu'dʒia/ (psychology);
ptêrodâctyl /tɛru'dɑktil/ (pterodactyl).
- ph
- Always /f/. Ex: philosophía
/filuzu'fia/
(philosophy); phouca /'fuka/
(seal [animal]); sâphiyr /sɑ'føĭr/
(sapphire).
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d e
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u v w x
y z
- q
- Very rare by itself (i.e. without a following <u>),
occurring only finally or before word-final <s>. Always pronounced /k/. Ex:
cinq /'tʃink/
(five); antiq /ɑn'tik/
(antique); soliloqs /suli'loks/
(soliloquies [acc.pl.]).
- qu, cqu
- Pronounced /kw/ before <a>. Ex:
quand(o) /'kwand(u)/ (when);
quatro /'kwatru/
(four); aqua /'akwa/
(water).
- Pronounced /k/ otherwise: quereir
/kə'rir/ (to search); quinci
/'kintʃi/ (fifteen); quota
/'kota/ (quota); acquereir
/ɑkə'rir/ (to acquire).
- qü
- Used only before the front vowels <e> and <i>, it is always pronounced /kw/:
qüessoun /kwɛ'sun/ (question); rêqüiem /rɛkwjem/ (requiem).
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- r, rr
- Generally pronounced /r/. Ex: rideir
/ri'dir/
(to laugh); part /'pɑrt/
(part); ceira /'tʃira/
(wax); tzerra /'tsɛra/
(earth); patroun /pɑt'run/
(skipper); ferr /'fɛr/
(iron).
- When the combination <rr> is derived from the Latin
prefix in- + a root beginning with <r>, it is pronounced doubled
/rr/. Ex: irrêgolar /irrɛgu'lar/
(irregular); irrevocábil /irrəvu'kabil/
(irrevocable).
- The letter <r> is silent between the glide /ĭ/ and
the phoneme /s/. Ex: cantêirs /kɑn'teĭs/
(geldings [acc.pl.]); ciyrs /'tʃøĭs/ (chickpeas
[acc.pl.]).
- The letter <r> is also silent, when
immediately followed by an article or a pronoun beginning with <l> or <s>, at the end of
infinitives and in the words per (by) and por (for).
Ex: cantar-lo /kɑn'talu/ (to sing it); demitteir-se
/dəmi'tisə/ (to resign); finiyr-los /fi'nøĭlus/
(to finish them); per lo paire /pəlu 'paĭre/
(by the father); por sû honour /pusu u'nur/
(for his honour).
- rh, rrh
- These combinations are pronounced /r/. Ex:
rhinocer /rinu'tʃer/
(rhinoceros); diarrheia /djɑ'ria/
(diarrhea).
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- s (but see below for <ss>)
- Initially, before voiceless consonants and after
consonants it is pronounced /s/. Ex: sal /'sal/
(salt); sport /'spɔrt/
(sport); castanha /kɑs'taɲa/
(chestnut); morsa /'mɔrsa/
(bit; walrus); ûrs /'urs/
(bear [n.]).
- Between vowels, except after prefixes ending in a
vowel, it is pronounced /z/. Ex: rosa /'roza/
(rose); casar /ka'zar/
(to marry).
- After prefixes ending in a vowel, the pronunciation
/s/ is retained. Ex: asexual /asɛk'swal/
(asexual); disemplicat /disɛmpli'kat/
(unemployed).
- Before voiced consonants, <s> is pronounced /z/. Ex:
asbest /az'bɛst/
(asbestos); isla /'izla/
(island); comunismo /kumy'nizmu/
(communism); asno /'aznu/
(donkey); Israel /izra'el/
(Israel). This rule also applies to asthma /'azma/
and isthmo /'izmu/
(isthm).
- In word-final position after a vowel, most cases of
<s> are subject to liaison: pronounced /z/ if a word beginning with a vowel
or a voiced consonant follows immediately, otherwise pronounced /s/. Ex: los
hoy perduts /luz oĭ per'dyts/ (I have lost
them); mi lo darás demán? /milu da'raz
dəmán?/ (will you give it to me tomorrow?); BUT: las
perdo dâ vista /lɑs 'pɛrdu dɑ 'vista/ (I am
losing them from my sight); vôs sêis
traz bén-vêniyt /vɔs'seĭs
'traz bɛn vɛ'nøĭt/ (you are very welcome).
- Liaison does not apply to word-final <s> that
alternates with <ss> in other declined or conjugated forms of the same
paradigm. Thus the following words are always pronounced with /s/: és
/'es ~ ɛs/ (is);
metús /mə'tys/
(same); bûs /'bus/
(bus); lapis /'lapis/
(pencil).
- -s is silent in the Tundrian pronunciation of many French placenames, e.g.: Chartres /'ʃɑrtrə/, Amiens /am'jɛn/.
- sc
- Before <e>, <i> and <y> (accented or not), this
combination is pronounced /ʃ/. Ex: sceina /'ʃina/
(scene, stage); scirma /'ʃirma/
(screen); Scylla /'ʃila/
(Scylla [Greek myth.]); descendeir /dɛʃen'dir/
(to descend).
- In other situations, the combination is pronounced
/sk/. Ex: escala /ɛs'kala/
(ladder); escola /ɛs'kola/
(school); oscur /ɔs'kyr/
(dark); escriveir /ɛskri'vir/
(to write); disc /'disk/
(disk, dial).
- sç
- Always /ʃ/ (used only before the back vowels
<a>, <o> or <u>). Ex: asça
/'ɑʃa/ (axe); sçónta
/'ʃonta/ (joke); cognosçut
/kunɔ'ʃyt/ (known).
- sh
- In some recent loanwords and proper nouns from other
languages, this digraph is pronounced /ʃ/. Ex: fashion
/'faʃun/; Hiroshima
/iru'ʃima/.
- ss
- This is the only doubled consonant letter in Tundrian
that has a pronunciation different from its single counterpart (when between vowels). It is always
/s/ and is not subject to liaison at the end of words. Ex: passar /pɑ'sar/
(to pass); qüessoun /kwɛ'sun/
(question); esseir /ɛ'sir/
(to be); tûss /'tus/
(cough).
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- t, tt
- Usually pronounced /t/. Ex: teica
/'tika/ (shop); treis
/'tris/ (three); quatro
/'kwɑtru/ (four); mitteir
/mi'tir/ (to put); saltar
/sɑl'tar/ (to jump); lat
/'lat/ (side); pont
/'pɔnt/ (bridge).
- Silent between a consonant and the adverbial ending
-ment. Ex: abûndantment /abundɑm'mɛnt/
(abundantly); brillantment /brilam'mɛnt/
(brilliantly). Also silent in the rare initial combination <tm>, as in
tmêse /'mɛzə/ (tmesis).
- th
- Usually /t/. Ex: theatro
/tɛ'ɑtru/ (theatre); thrón
/'tron/ (throne); cathedral
/katə'dral/ (cathedral); myth
/'mit/ (myth).
- Silent between <s> and <m>, as in asthma
/'azma/; isthmo /'izmu/.
- ts, ths, tz
- All these combinations are pronounced /ts/. It should
be noted that <ts> and <ths> occur only in final position, when
the ending <s> is added on to word-final <t>
or <th>. Ex: tzeneir /tsə'nir/
(to hold); natzoun /na'tsun/
(nation); partzal /pɑr'tsal/
(partial); pûtz /'puts/
(well [n.]); pots /'pots/
(you can); myths /'mits/
(myths [acc.pl.]).
- tx
- This combination is always pronounced /tʃ/. Ex:
Txad /'tʃad/
(Chad); auratx /ɔ'ratʃ/
(thunderstorm); viatx /'vjatʃ/
(travel).
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- u
- The normal pronunciation of this letter is /y/. Ex:
un /yn/ (a, one);
luna /'lyna/
(moon); devum /də'vym/
(we had to); tu /'ty/
(you [sing.]).
- In the combinations <gu> and <qu>, when followed by
another vowel (except <a>), <u> is silent. Ex: guerra
/'gɛra/ (war); quindzi /'kindzi/ (forthnight);
quota /'kota/ (quota).
- In other situations where <u> is between a consonant
(incl. <h>) and a vowel, it is pronounced /w/. Ex: dual
/'dwal/ (dual); guastar
/gwɑs'tar/ (to spoil); huest
/'wɛst/ (west); annual
/ɑn'wal/ (annual); quatro
/'kwɑtru/ (four); Suîtza
/'switsa/ (Switzerland); instituîr
/insti'twir/ (to institute).
- ú
- Always /y/. Ex: illúmina
/il'lymina/ (it illuminates); rêpública
/rɛ'pyblika/ (republic); baúr
/ba'yr/ (trunk [luggage]); devú
/də'vy/ (she had to).
- û
- Always /u/. Ex: ûmbra /'umbra/
(shadow); mûnd /'mund/
(world); tabû /ta'bu/
(taboo); paûr /pa'ur/
(fear); sinûs /'sinus/
(sine).
- ü
- This letter is never used for a stressed vowel.
Its most common use is to show that after <g> or <q> it is to be pronounced
/w/ before a front vowel (<e> or <i>). Ex: lingüe
/'lingwə/ (languages, tongues); qüessoun
/kwɛ'sun/ (question).
- A second, quite rare, use of <ü> is to show that in
the combination <eü> it is to be pronounced /ɛy/ and not /ø/ as <eu> would
be. Ex: reünioun /rɛy'njun/
(meeting).
- ui, úi, uy
- Generally speaking, these digraphs are pronounced
/yĭ/. Ex: fruita /'fryĭta/
(fruit); devúi /də'vyĭ/
(I had to); ruyna /'ryĭna/
(ruin).
- Before the consonants /tʃ/ and /ʃ/, the combination
<ui> is read as /y/. Ex: juiç /'ʒytʃ/
(judge); luix /'lyʃ/
(luxury).
- After <g> or <q>, unless immediately followed by a
consonant, the <u> in <ui> is considered to be part of the combination
<silent u> + <i>. Ex: guidar /gi'dar/
(to guide); guiysa /'gøĭza/
(disguise); quint /'kint/
(fifth).
- In some proper nouns, <uy> is read simply as /y/. Ex:
Huyra /'yra/; Rasuyta
/ra'zyta/.
- ûi, ûy
- These combinations are normally read as /uĭ/. Ex: cûit
/'kuĭt/ (elbow).
- Before the consonant /ʃ/, the digraph <ûi> is simply
/u/. Ex: cûixta /'kuʃta/
(pillow); rûix /'ruʃ/
(red).
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- v
- Normally pronounced /v/. Ex: viyn
/'vøĭn/ (wine); cavail
/ka'vaĭl/ (horse); cûrva
/'kurva/ (curve).
- In word-final position, or before word-final <s>, the
pronunciation of <v> is /f/. Ex: natiy
/na'tøĭf/;
deivs /'difs/ (you
have to). Word-final <v> is subject to liaison, as in: el guiyda natiyv
és arripat /əl 'gøĭda na'tøĭv ɛs ɑri'pat/ (the
native guide has arrived). This rule does not apply to nov /'nov/ (new; nine) because this form occurs only before words beginning with
a vowel or a silent h.
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- w
- Normally restricted to recent loanwords from English
and German, this letter is pronounced /v/. Ex: wagón
/va'gon/ (wagon); watt
/'vɑt/; whisky /'viski/.
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- x
- The most common value of this letter is /ʃ/. This is
the pronunciation initially (incl. in words of Greek origin), as in:
xac /'ʃak/
(chess); xedeir /ʃə'dir/
(to sit); xîc /'ʃik/
(dry); xoma /'ʃoma/
(heap, set); xûrd /'ʃurd/
(deaf); xênophobía /ʃɛnufu'bia/
(xenophobia).
- /ʃ/ is also the pronunciation of <x> within words
whenever the letter <i> (pronounced or not) precedes, as in: laixar
/la'ʃar/ (to allow, let); pêix
/'peʃ/ (fish); mixtura
/miʃ'tyra/ (mixture); coixa
/'koʃa/ (thigh); rûix
/'ruʃ/ (red). In a few other words, incl. some
proper names, we find /ʃ/ even when not following <i>. Ex: touxi
/'tuʃi/ (also); Naax
/'naʃ/.
- In the same context (i.e. after <i>), the
pronunciation of <x> is /ʒ/ if it is followed by a voiced consonant. Ex:
beixla /'biʒla/
(beetle); fêlixment /fɛliʒ'mɛnt/
(fortunately); fraixno /'fraʒnu/
(ash-tree).
- The pronunciation of <x> is /s/ (1) when followed by
a voiceless consonant (except after <i>), e.g.: expêitar /ɛspeĭ'tar/
(to expect); têxtil /'tɛstil/
(textile); excusa /ɛs'kyza/
(excuse); and (2) in Bruxella /bry'sɛla/
(Brussels), mâxim /'mɑsim/
(maximum) and prôxim /'prɔsim/
(next), and their declined forms.
- The pronunciation of <x> is /z/ in words beginning
with aux- and ex- followed by a vowel, <h> or a voiced
consonant. Ex: auxiliar /ɔzi'ljar/
(auxiliary); exercitar /ɛzɛrtʃi'tar/
(to practice); exhauriyr /ɛzɔ'røĭr/
(to exhaust); exmagar /ɛzma'gar/
(to dismay). This rule does not apply to the prefix
ex- (former), which is always pronounced /ɛks-/ (see below for an
example).
- In all other cases, <x> is pronounced /ks/. Ex: ex-prêsident
/'ɛks prɛzi'dɛnt/ (ex-president); axe
/'ɑksə/ (axis); hexavalent
/ɛksava'lɛnt/ (hexavalent); sex
/'sɛks/ (sex); sexualitat
/sɛkswali'tat/ (sexuality); tôxic
/'tɔksik/ (toxic).
- xc
- Before <e>, <i> and <y> (accented or not), this
combination is pronounced /ʃ/. Ex: excellent /ɛʃɛ'lɛnt/ (excellent); excitar
/ɛʃi'tar/ (to excite).
- In other situations, the combination is pronounced
/sk/. Ex: excavar /ɛska'var/
(to excavate); excusa /ɛs'kyza/
(excuse); excludeir /ɛskly'dir/
(to exclude).
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- y
- Before a vowel, <y> is normally considered to be a
consonant pronounced /j/. Ex: yera /'jera/
(was); yelta /'jɛlta/
(hilt); yaûrt /ja'urt/
(yoghurt); hyena /'jena/
(hyena); baryûm /'barjum/
(baryum).
- Otherwise, <y> is a vowel, pronounced /i/. Ex:
ytriûm /'itrium/
(yttrium); hypothese /ipu'tezə/
(hypothesis); hymn /'in/
(hymn); jury /'ʒyri/
(jury).
- ý
- This rare letter corresponds to <y> (pronounced /i/)
under irregular stress. Ex: phýsica
/'fizika/ (physics); sýmbol
/'simbul/ (symbol).
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- z
- Normally, this letter is pronounced /z/. Ex:
zaveit /za'vit/
(shark); zôna /'zɔna/
(zone); pezar /pə'zar/
(to weigh); autorizar /ɔturi'zar/
(to authorize).
- In word-final position, <z> is subject to liaison
just as most occurrences of <s> in this position: pronounced /z/ if a word
beginning with a vowel or a voiced consonant follows immediately, otherwise
pronounced /s/. Ex: payeiz /pa'is/
(country); meiz /'mis/
(month), BUT: cel meiz és el melhour por
viatxar /tʃəl 'miz ɛs əl mə'ʎur pur vja'tʃar/
(this month is the best for travelling).
- The rare cases of <z> before a voiceless consonant
are pronounced /s/. Ex: Pezten /'pɛstən/
(city in southern Tundria); aztec /ɑs'tek/
(Aztec).
- The combination <zz> in words of recent Italian origin is pronounced /ts/. Ex: pizza /'pitsa/;
mozzadella /mɔtsa'dɛla/.
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HOMOPHONES
As in other languages with a historical-etymological
spelling system, there are homophones in Tundrian distinguishable only by their
spelling. Here are the most common ones (with pronunciation shown):
/'a/
a (to, at)
A (the letter A)
ha (he has)
/a'bɔrts/
abords (2nd pers. sing pres.subj. of abordar [to board])
aborts (2nd pers. sing pres.subj. of abortar [to abort])
/'ɛr/
aer (air)
R (the letter R)
/'as/
as (ace)
has (you have)
/a'vit/
aveit (fir tree)
haveit (imper.plural of haveir [to have])
/avr'ia, -s, -n; avri'am; avr'iaĭs/
avrîa, -s, -n; avriam, -iais (forms of the imperfect of the verb 'avriyr' [to open])
havrîa, -s, -n; havriam, -iais (forms of the conditional of the verb 'haveir' [to have])
/'tʃi/
C (the letter C)
ci (here)
/'kaĭl/
cail (street; corn [on the foot])
cayl (puppy)
/'kɔl/
caul (cabbage)
côl (mountain pass)
/kɔ'løĭna/
cauliyna (blade [of grass])
colliyna (hill)
/'kɔma/
cauma (heat-wave)
côma (coma)
comma (comma)
/'tʃits/
ceits (sea monsters, whales [acc.pl.])
cits (2nd pers. sing. pres.subj. of citar [to quote])
/'kor/
chór (choir)
cór (heart)
/'kotʃə/
coce (he cooks)
coice (shells, pods)
/'kurt/
court (court [of law])
cûrt (short)
/'kuvru/
couvro (I cover)
cûvro (copper)
/'kyna/
Cugna (Cugna [a city in southern Tundria])
cuna (cradle)
/'kuĭts/
cûits (elbows [acc.pl.])
cûyts (2nd pers. sing. pres.subj. of cûytar [to nurse])
/'dan/
damn (damage)
dan (they give)
/də'leĭt/
delêit (delight)
deleyt (choice)
/du'tʃim/
doceim (we teach)
douceim (twelfth)
/du'tʃɛnti/
docenti (lecturers)
doucenti (two hundred)
/'dus - 'duz/
dos (you [polite form, acc.pl.])
dous (two)
/ɛ'ram / ɛ'raĭs/
êram / êrais (we/you were)
erram / errais (we/you make a mistake)
/ɛs'tila/
esteila (star)
estilla (it drops)
/ɛzi'tar/
exitar (exit [v.])
hêsitar (hesitate)
/'fa/
fa (he/she does)
fá (fa [musical note])
/'fɛr/
faer (to do)
ferr (iron)
/'fid/
feid (ugly)
fid (faith)
/'frøĭts/
friyds (cold [acc.pl., masc.])
friyts (fried [acc.pl., masc.])
/'fyĭta/
fuita (fled [pp., fem.sing.])
fuyta (leak)
/'gula/
Ghoyla (county and town in western Tundria)
gûla (throat)
/'ɔsta/
hosta (hostess)
osta (he uncovers)
/y'ran/
huyrán (from the county of Huyra)
Urán (Uranus)
/la/
la (the [fem.sing.])
lá (la [musical note])
/lɑs/
las (the [acc.pl.fem], before a voiceless cons.)
lass (tired, weary)
/'leĭt/
lêit (bed)
leyt (read [pp.])
/leĭ'vat/
lêivat
(betrayal)
leyvat (pp. of leyvar [to
lighten])
/'liɲa/
ligna (firewood)
linha (line)
/mi/
mei (me [after prep.])
mi (to me)
mí (mi [musical note])
mî (my [masc.sing.])
/'mis/
meiz (month)
mîs (my [acc.masc.pl.])
miss (put [pp.])
/'mits/
mîts (you put)
myths (myths [acc.pl.])
/mɔs'tria/
mostría (sample [n.])
mostrîa (he samples)
/'pina/
peina (fine [n.], punishment)
pinna (fin)
/'peĭra/
pêira (stone)
peyra (ewe)
/'pis -
'piz/
peiz (weight)
pis (pea)
/'pupa/
pûpa (doll)
pûppa (stern [of ship])
/pu'tim/
poteim (we can) etc.
pûteim (that we trim) etc.
/'rɔka/
rauca (hoarse [fem.sing.])
rocca (rock)
/'reĭna/
rêina (queen [ruling])
reyna (queen [consort])
/'saĭna/
saina (healthy [fem.sing.])
sayna (seine net)
/'sɔr/
saur (brown [horse colour])
sôr (father-in-law)
/'ʃina/
sceina (scene, stage)
Xina (China)
/ʃi/
sci (ski)
xi (if)
/'ʃia/
scîa (he skis)
xîa (wake [of a ship])
/si/
sei (him/her/itself [after prep.]; be [imp.sing.])
si (to him/her/itself; so)
sí (yes; si [musical note])
/'seĭs/
sêirs (serious [masc.plur.acc.])
sêis (you [pl] are)
seyls (centuries [acc.pl.])
/sula'mɛnt/
solament (only)
soulament (alone, by oneself)
/'sul/
soul (sun; only [adj.])
sûl (shrew)
/su'prima/
sûpreima (supreme [fem.sing.])
sûprima (subj.pres. 1st/3rd.pers.sing. of the verb sûprimeir [to suppress])
/ti/
T (the letter T)
tei (you [sing., after prep.])
ti (to you [sing.])
tî (uncle)
/'tɛst/
test (test)
text (text)
/'tur/
tour (tour, trip)
tûrr (tower)
/'tus/
touz (cut, shorn [pp.])
tûs (your [acc.masc.pl.])
tûss (cough [n.])
/vi/
V (the letter V)
vi (there)
/'vaĭna/
vaina (vain [fem.sing.])
vayna (sheath)
/'van/
van (they go)
ván (vain)
/'vas - 'vaz/
vas (you go)
vaz (glass [for drinking])
/'vila/
veila (sail [n.])
villa (town)
/'vinta/
veinta (sale)
vinta (bound [pp; fem.sing.])
/'vɛri/
vêri (various [nom.masc.pl.])
verri (boars)